yp-NRLF 


Q  P 

517 

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A3  5 

1902a 

BIOS 


IE  PHYSIOLOGIC  UNIT. 


GEORGE  ADAM,  M.  D. 

'essor  of  Therapeutics  and  Electro-Thera' 
peuttcs,   College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  San  Francisco,  Col, 


REPRINTED  FROM 

PACIFIC  MEDICAL'  JOURNAL 

AUGUST,    I9O2 


V,   A.   WOODWARD  &  CO,,   12  SUTTIR   ST. 


With  Compliments  of 


THE     PHYSIOLOGIC     UNIT.*  QA? 

By  GEORGE  ADAM,  M.  D.  ^n     x  c 

Professor  of  Therapeutics  and  EJectro-Therapeutics,  College  of  Physicians     ^" 
and  Surgeons,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

The  complex  problem  of  physiology  must  be  solved  by  a 
generalization  embracing  electric,  chemic  and  physical 
laws.  Hence,  in  order  to  render  plain  certain  principles 
which  are  the  bases  of  physiologic  action,  the  following 
postulates  are  formulated  :f 

1.  That  ether  is  the  simplest  form  of  matter;  that  it  is 
molecular,  and  that  it  has  a  chemistry.     (Fig.  1,  A.) 

2.  That  electricity  is  the  chemistry  of  ether,  i.  e.,  that 
dissociation  and  association  of  ether   atoms  or   units  con- 
stitute electricity  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term.    (Fig. 

3.  That    electric    potential    and    chemic    potential    are 
fundamentally   identical    being  based  on  the  potential  of 
free  ether-units  or  atoms;  differentiating,  in  as  much  as  in 
the    former    the   ether-units    are   completely   free,  and  in 
the  latter  they  are  constituents  of  and  are  partially  neu- 
tralized within  the  chemic  atom.     (Fig.  1,  B,  c.) 

4.  It  follows    that    there    is  an  analogy    between   elec- 
tric manifestations  and   molecular   conditions,  and  that  a 
study  of  the  one  will  enable  us  to  define  the  other.    (Fig. 
1,  D,  E.)     Consequently  the  following  definition  of  a  mole- 
cule must-  be  accepted:     That  it  is  the  physical  unit;  that 
its   ultimate    constituent    units    are   identical   with  ether- 
atoms;    that   it   has  a  potential  of  unneutralized  units   of 
positive  or  negative  quality;    that  this  potential  is  repre- 
sented in  an  induced  magnetic  field  surrounding  the  mole- 
cular   body,  and    therefore    may   be  termed  the  inductive 
potential;   that    this   tri-dimensional    induced  field   is   the 
molecular  free  or  vibratory  space;  and  that  there  are  no 
free  spaces  within  the  ponderable  body  of   the  molecule, 
the  units  being  in  direct  contact  and  more  or  less  immole- 
cularly  neutralized.     (Fig.   1,  c,  E.) 

*  The  writer  intended  to  read  this  paper  at  the  meeting  of  the  National 
Medical  Association,  held  at  Saratoga  Springs,  June  10  to  13,  1902,  but  the 
programmes  were  closed  before  the  title  was  presented. 

t  In  a  paper  read  before  the  California  State  Medical  Society,  April,  1902, 
these  postulates  have  been  more  fully  explained. 

374409 


2  '  ° Tht  Physiologic  Unit. 

5.  That    chemic    atoms    are  groups  of    ether-units;  that 
they    associate    and    disassociate    in  obedience    to    their 
quantitatively    and   qualitatively   differentiated    potentials 
represented  by  the  extrinsic  neutralization  of  their  units; 
that   within   the    molecule  they  are  more  or  less  neutral- 
ized through  direct  contact  with, other  chemic  units,  and 
they  therefore  have  no  free  surrounding  spaces,  and  con- 
sequently  lose   their   identity    within    the  molecular  con- 
struction. 

6.  That  atomic  and  molecular  states  are  mutually  trans- 
formable:     At  a  specific    decrement  of  pressure  an  .atom 
dissociates    and   assumes  the  molecular  condition;  and  at 
a  specific  increase  of  pressure  a  molecule  will  unite  with 
another   molecule   although    qualitatively  the  same  in  po- 
tential, the  constituents  of  the  nascent  molecule  having  a 
common    induced    field;    that    dissociation    is   progressive 
until  ultimate   ponderable   units  are  reached,  and  in  gen- 
eral is  according  to  a  fixed  law.     The  dimensions  of  mole- 
cules decrease,  and  their  potentials  and  induced  areas  in- 
crease  in  inverse   proportion    to   pressure,  and  in  direct 
proportion  to  temperature. 

7.  That  crystallization  is  the  great  physical  analogue  of 
physiologic  action  (Fig.  1,  G,  i),  having  the  following  factors: 
Molecular   polarization;   equipotential  hemispheres  of  the 
molecule  when  polarized;   association   of   other  molecules 
in  order  that  the  hemispheres    should  be  equipotential — 
absorbing  water    of   crystallization;    and   the   dissociation 
of  these  additional  molecules — dehydration — on  molecular 
depolarization. 

8.  That  the   physiologic   unit  is  molecular  in  character 
having  an  inductive  potential  of  negative  quality,  and  sur- 
rounded  by  a  tri-dimensional   induced    magnetic   field  in 
which   are   polarized   ponderable    molecules    (Fig.    1,    H); 
that  it  has  the  property  of  differentiating  its  poles — polar- 
ization— (Fig.  1,    i)    and  associating   additional  molecules 
in  order    that   its  hemispheres  be  equipotential,  and  dis- 
sociating these  molecules  on  depolarization. 

9.  That   the   molecular   conception    of   the   physiologic 
unit   leads   ixs  to  formulate    the  following  law:     That  the 
physiologic   unit   at   rest  is   in    the    electric  state,  with  a 
uniform  induced  magnetic  field   (Fig.  1,  H);   and  that  in 
action  it  is  in  the  magnetic  state,  with  differentiated  poles 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  3 

and   differentiated  induced   magnetic   polar    fields.     (Fig. 
1,1.) 

10.  That   the   potential   of  a  molecule   or   cell  must  be 
estimated  on  the  basis-of  constituent  ether-units,  and  not 
on  that  of  chemical  atoms.     Thus,  water  having  16  parts 
of  negative   oxygen,  and  2  parts  of  positive  hydrogen  is 
apparently  electro-negative,  but  a  proximate  estimation  of 
ether-units  in  the  atoms  of  oxygen   and  hydrogen    shows 
water  to  be    electro-positive,    arid    this    accords   with   the 
physical  character  of   water   and.  its  behavior  under  elec- 
tric currents. 

11.  That  at  the  moment  of  depolarization,  there  are  dis- 
sociated at  the  poles  of   the  physiologic   unit  an  extreme 
positive  and  an  extreme  negative  atom — ions — the  course 
of  which   differentiates;    and  that  the  dissociation  consti- 
tutes the  waste  of  the  unit.     (Fig.  1,  K.) 

12.  That  the  nutritive   element  of   the  physiologic  unit 
must  be  identical  with  its  waste  elements,  although  differ- 
ing in  potential;  and  that  the  unit  receives  molecular  nu- 
trition qualitatively  the  same  in  potential  as  its  own,  and 
hence  the  union  must  be  accomplished  by  extrinsic  pres- 
sure.    Hence  the  formula:    The  unit  during  rest  associates 
molecules  as  nutrition,  and  during  action  dissociates  them 
as  ions. 

13.  That  fundamentally   physiologic  units  are  identical, 
only  quantitatively  differing  in  potential;   and  that  func- 
tional differentiation  is  accomplished  by  the  differentiation 
of  environment. 

14.  That    ions    produced   by  gland-cell    action    are  im- 
pressed into   blood   elements,  and   build  up  the  latter  in 
potential,  which  become  potential  carriers,  returning  to  the 
circulation   through   lymph   channels  (as  in  the  thyroid), 
or  forming  the  principle  constituents  of  an  internal  secre- 
tion (enzymes,  etc). 

15.  That  the  product  of   reactions  between  lymph-salts 
and   ions  produced  by  cell-action   furnish  secondary  ions 
which  constitute  the  essential    nutrition  for  cell-division, 
as  shown  by  segmentation  of  spermatogenetic  cells.     That 
these  secondary  ions  may  be  produced  in  any  part  of  the 
body  through  circulatory  and  osmotic  changes,  hence  any 
physiologic  cell  may  assume   reproductive  properties  and 
become  pathologic,  as  in  the  growth  of  tumors. 


4  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

In  figure  1  the  symbols  4-  and  —  represent  units  of  matter 
and  units  of  force,  quantitatively  equal  but  qualitatively 
opposed;  A,  represents  a  molecule  of  ether,  in  which  the 
units  are  immolecularly  neutralized,  hence  it  is  potentially 
at  zero;  B,  the  positive  and  negative  units  separated,  and 
the  signs  respectively  represent  positive  and  negative 


H- 


FIG.  1. — Potential  differentations. 

electrifications;  c,  positive  and  negative  primary  molecules 
of  ponderable  matter,  each  being  equal  in  potential  to  a 
free  unit  of  ether,  or  a  unit  of  electricity.  In  the  vacuum 
tube  similar  molecules  have  been  demonstrated  by  Pro- 
fessor Thomson  to  be  carriers  of  electricity,  and  to  be  one 
thousand  time  smaller  than  the  hydrogen  atom;  D1,  D,  posi- 
tively electrified  bodies  with  uniform  induced  magnetic 
fields,  the  induction  being  demonstrable  by  placing  a  con- 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  5 

ductor  within  the  field;  E,  E1,  molecules  of  ponderable 
matter,  surrounded  by  tridimensional  induced  fields  or  free 
vibratory  spaces;  F,  magnets  with  differentiated  polar  in- 
duced fields,  also  demonstrable;  G,  molecules  of  a  magnet 
with  differentiated  polar  induced  fields;  H,  the  physiologic 
unit  at  rest,  potentially  of  negative  quality,  and  surrounded 
by  a  uniform  induced  field;  I,  the  physiologic  unit  polar- 
ized or  in  action,  with  differentiated  poles  and  differ- 
entiated induced  fields — they  are  in  a  state  of  tetany, 
coagulation,  crystallization,  etc.;  K,  a  physiologic  molecule 
depolarizing,  with  p  and  n  representing  ions  dissociated  at 
their  respective  poles.  Specifically,  the  p  represents  hy- 
drogen and  carbon,  and  n  represents  oxygen,  respectively 
the  most  positive  and  negative  chemic  constituents  of  the 
physiologic  molecule. 

Molecular  Potential,  Molecular  Induced  Field',  and  Mole- 
cular Polarization. — These  principles  are  universal  prop- 
erties of  ponderable  matter,  and  upon  these  the  manifesta- 
tions of  the  inherent  forces  of  matter,  as  expressed  through 
natural  phenomena,  are  based.  The  writer  believes  that 
physiologic  phenomena  do  not  form  an  exception  to  this 
rule. 

Molecular  Potential  depends  upon  the  absolute  number 
of  the  constituent  ether-units  of  the  molecule;  upon  their 
relative  number  as  to  positive  or  negative  quality;  and 
upon  their  relative  placement  within  the  molecule.  Mole- 
cular potential  differentiates  according  to  the  neutralizing 
force — a  gravitating  potential  when  the  neutralizing  force 
pertains  to  a  mass  such  as  that  of  the  earth;  a  chemical  po- 
tential when  the  neutralizing  force  is  the  polar  potential 
of  an  adjoining  molecule;  and  other  differentiations  may  be 
made  according  to  the  force  opposed.  The  inductive  poten- 
tial of  a  molecule  may  be  defined  as  the  difference  between 
the  sum  of  its  positive  and  the  sum  of  its  negative  constitu- 
ent ether-units,  and  this  potential  is  represented  by  induc- 
tion in  the  surrounding  magnetic  field  of  the  molecule. 
(Fig.  1,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  i.)  It  is  evident  that  the  inductive 
potential  may  be  of  positive  or  negative  quality.  This 
potential  is  a  most  important  principle  in  the  production 
of  physiologic  phenomena. 

Molecular  Induced  Magnetic  Field. — This  tridimensional 
space,  when  not  distorted  by  external  pressure,  uniformly 


6  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

surrounds  the  molecule;  it  is  directly  dimensionally  pro- 
portional to  the  inductive  potential;  and  it  is  the  free  or 
vibratory  space  of  the  molecule.  In  the  induced  fields  of 
small  molecules  ether  is  polarized,  this  being  the  only  form 
of  matter  so  molecularly  minute  as  to  occupy  intermole- 
cular  spaces;  in  the  induced  fields  of  electrically  charged 
bodies  and  in  those  of  physiologic  molecules  ponderable 
matter  is  polarized. 

Molecular  Polarization. — By  this  is  meant  that  all  the 
molecular  poles  of  a  kind  point  in  one  direction.  (Fig.  1, 
F,  G,  I.)  When  a  molecule  polarizes  it  assumes  the  spheri- 
cal form  with  equipotential  hemispheres.  If  the  relative 
number  of  the  molecular  constituent  positivities  and  nega- 
tivities prohibit  the  hemispheres  from  becoming  equipoten- 
tial on  polarizing,  the  molecule  either  imbibes  additional 
molecules,' as  in  the  case  of  crystallization,  etc.,  or  it 
extrudes  molecules,  as  in  the  case  of  segmentation.  The 
former  we  have  termed  associating  molecules  and  the  latter 
dissociating  molecules  of  polarization.  The  associating 
molecules  when  given  off  may  be  termed  dissociating  mole- 
cules of  depolarization.  It-  is  evident  that  a  body  having 
its  molecules  polarized  will  itself  have  poles;  and  that  if 
such  a  body  be  a  unit  of  a  larger  body  the  latter  will  also 
have  poles.  The  molecules,  unit  bodies  and  the  larger 
body  will  have  poles  uniformly  directed.  (Fig.  1,  G,  I.) 

The  Physiologic  Unit. — It  may  be  practically  impossible 
to  ascertain  the  exact  chemistry  of  the  physiologic  unit. 
However,  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  is  composed  of  hy- 
drogen, carbon,  phosphorus,  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  Sulphur 
is  probably  an  element  of  the  protecting  or  insulating 
tissues.  The  unit  may  contain  thousands  of  chemic  atoms, 
and  the  constituent  ether-units  may  be  numbered  by  trill- 
ions. All  electro-neuro-muscular  facts  point  to  the  unit 
having  a  negative  potential.  As  it  becomes  exhausted  it 
approaches  neutrality,  and  probably  has  a  base  which  is 
potentially  positive.  The  base  must  have  a  permanent 
character,  that  is,  it  is  not  altered  by  functional  activity,  as 
a  complete  disintegration  would  imply  a  temporary  loss  of 
function  of  the  organ  of  which  it  is  the  structural  unit. 
The  acid  reaction  obtained  in  nerve  and  muscle,  after  a 
period  of  functional  activity,  points  to  the  elements  of 
waste,  being,  in  the  gross,  electro-negative  in  quality. 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  7 

As  the  physiologic  unit  takes  on  certain  elements  as 
nutrition,  with  a  gain  of  potential,  and  gives  them  off  as 
waste,  with  a  loss  of  potential,  and  as  there  has  been  work 
done,  the  inherent  potential  of  the  waste  elements  must  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  nutritive  elements.  The  work  done 
by  the  unit  must  be  equal  to  the  difference  of  potential 
between  the  nutritive  and  the  waste  elements.  The  meta- 
bolic changes  involved  must  be  molecular,  and  must  be 
accomplished  by  a  molecule.  No  other  conclusion  can  be 
arrived  at.  This  subject  is  specifically  discussed  under  sec- 
tion on  waste  and  nutrition. 

Mass  and  Molecule. — A  mass  is  composed  of  molecules. 
As  the  potential  of  each  molecule  is  represented  in  its  own 
induced  field,  it  follows  that  a  mass  can  have  no  induced 
field,  except  under  such  pressure  as  will  distort  the  induced 
fields  of  the  molecules.  Conversely,  if  a  body  has  an  in- 
duced field  it  must  be  molecular  in  character,  except  it  is 
electrically  charged,  a  condition  impossible  in  a  body  sur- 
rounded by  electric  conductors. 

Nucleolus. — Wherein  resides  the  potential  by  which  func- 
tional activities  are  accomplished?  Our  answer  is  that  the 
potential  is  in  the  nucleoli  of  cells,  in  the  anisotropic  sub- 
stance of  muscles,  and  in  an  analogous  unit  in  the  axis 
cylinder  of  nerves  or  in  the  cytoplasm  of  their  cells,  and 
that  these  bodies  are  molecules  of  high  negative  potential, 
having  the  property  of  polarization,  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  all  function;  and  that  they  are  surrounded  by 
induced  magnetic  fields — the,  nuclei  of  cells,  the  isotropic 
substance  of  muscles,  etc. ;  that  when  they  polarize  they 
associate  molecules  of  polarization,  and  dissociate  these 
molecules  on  depolarization  (Fig.  1,  H,  i);  and  that  func- 
tion is  accompanied  by  the  splitting  up  of  molecules  into 
ions. 

The  optical  properties  of  nucleoli  are  not  inconsistent 
with  a  molecular  character.  Their  highly  refractive  powers 
may  be  owing  to  their  diameters  being  much  greater  than  the 
length  of  light-waves.  The  anisotropic  property  of  the 
muscle-disc,  the  light  and  dark  bands,  the  difference  shown 
by  the  resting  and  contracting  fiber  when  examined  by 
high  power,  may  be  in  the  line  of  further  investigations, 
which  may  furnish  demonstrable  proof  that  the  anisotropic 
substance  is  molecular,  and  the  isotropic  substance  its  in- 


8  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

duced  field;  the  latter  having  innumerable  polar izable 
bodies  which  are  also  molecular  in  character.  The  concep- 
tion of  the  chromosomes  of  the  nuclear  field  being  mole- 
cules, which  are  built  up  to  a  negative  potential  by  the  ions 
produced  by  the  nucleolus,  will  explain  how  these  bodies 
move  towards  the  cytoplasm  by  a  reciprocal  repulsion  of 
similar  potentials,  which  exist  between  them  and  the  nu- 
cleolus. 

The  nuclear  elements,  therefore,  may  consist  of  material 
of  negative  potential  moving  from  the  nucleolus,  and  other 
material  of  positive  potential  moving  toward  that  body. 
The  latter  is  probably  composed  of  the  basic  material  of 
cells,  perhaps  nuclein,  and  nutritive  elements,  such  as  the 
proteids  and  hydro-carbons.  The  former  may  be  composed 
of  nuclein  built  up  to  a  negative  potential,  and  some  kata- 
bolites  resulting  from  the  metabolism  of  nutrition.  Amongst 
the  katabolites,  however,  there  must  be  a  certain  desidera- 
tum of  potential  of  positive  quality,  which  is  not  repelled 
by  the  negative  nucleolus.  Carbon  and  hydrogen  must 
enter  largely  into  this  element,  although  there  may  be  sec- 
ondary reactions  between  these  and  blood- elements.  This 
by-product  may  be  disposed  of  by  extrinsic  pressure  and 
osmotic  action,  but  herein  may  rest  the  principle  on  which 
the  cell  ages. 

When  certain  elements  of  the  nucleus  leave  the  area  of 
induction  and  are  free  to  act  on  their  own  polar  potentials, 
they  mutually  attract  and  form  a  membrane  which  envelops 
the  nucleus.  In  the  division  of  the  cell,  when  there  are 
two  centrosomes — nucleoli— the  membrane  again  comes 
within  the  induced  sphere,  and  the  elements  are  polarized 
by  primary  potentials,  and  the  membrane  disappears,  to 
again  appear  when  division  is  complete. 

Associating  Molecules  of  Polarization. — Crystallization 
of* certain  salts,  coagulation  of  the  blood,  rigor  mortis,  con- 
tractility, conductivity,  and,  it  may  be  presumed,  the  func- 
tions of  all  cells,  and  various  other  physical  and  physiologic 
phenomena,  have,  as  an  essential  factor,  association  of 
molecules  of  polarization.  A  principle  so  wide  in  its  appli- 
cation must  differentiate  in  detail,  and  we  find  that  the 
associating  molecules  vary  according  to  the  potentials  of 
the  polarizing  bodies;  thus,  certain  salts  demand  from  one 
to  many  molecules  of  water  in  order  to  crystalize,  whilst 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  9 

there  is  alcohol,  benzine,  and  molecules  of  other  substances 
essential  to  other  crystallizing  bodies.  A  calcium  salt  is 
necessary  for  the  coagulation  of  the  blood.  Sodium  and 
other  salts  stimulate  the  action  of  nerves,  whilst  most  potas- 
sium compounds  interfere  with  their  function.*  Muscular 
contraction  takes  place  only  in  the  presence  of  certain 
salts,  and  these  may  differ  in  striped  and  unstriped  muscu- 
lar fibers.  An  ovum  will  functionate  only  when  associated 
with  a  definite  compound  with  a  distinctive  potential  com- 
mensurate with  the  deficiency  of  its  positive  pole  or  corres- 
ponding hemisphere.  The  sperm  centrosome  is  such  a 
compound,  but  here,  again,  the  ovum  and  sperm  may  poten- 
tially differentiate  in  individuals,  in  races,  and  in  species, 
so  that  each  unit  has  its  co-efficient,  the  joint  efficacy  being 
limited  to  certain  spheres  of  differentation. 

Obviously,  all  molecules  polarize  with  equipotential 
hemispheres,  and  with  poles  qualitatively  differentiated  but 
quantitatively  equal ;  the  inductive  potential  of  the  polarizing 
molecule  must  be  equal  in  quantity  but  different  in  quality 
from  the  potential  of  the  co  efficient;  and  the  great  prin- 
ciple of  polarization  must  underlie  physiological  as  well  as 
physical  "phenomena,  being  the  main  factor  in  the  crystalli- 
zation of  a  salt  and  the  fecundation  of  an  ovum.  When  a 
molecule  depolarizes,  dissociation  of  the  molecules  of  polar- 
zation  takes  place.  In  crystallization  this  has  been  termed 
dehydration.  The  writer  suggests,  as  a  general  term,  dis- 
association  of  molecules  of  polarization.  It  is  worthy  of 
observation  that  these  additional  elements  of  polarization 
are  associated  as  molecules,  and  are  evidently  dissociated 
in  the  molecular  state,  no  change  in  their  physical  or  chem- 
ical character  having  taken  place. 

Fundamental  Principle  of  Function. — It  is  evident  that 
there  must  be  an  underlying  principle  to  all  functions.  As 
all  structures  are  built  up  from  the  same  histologic  unit,  so 
the  differentiated  functions  must  have  a  common  principle. 
That  principle  is  polarization,  and  the  differentations  be- 
long to  environing  conditions.  Under  distinctive  and  exact 
conditions  of  pressure  and  temperature,  amidst  ions  pro- 
duced by  already  formed  structures,  the  unit  is  built  up  to 
a  high  potential  of  negative  quality.  (Fig.  1,  H.)  Placed 
in  position  where,  by  means  of  extrinsic  pressure,  molecular 

*Dr.  A.  P.  Mathews,  Century,  March,  1902. 


10  Tie  Physiologic  Unit. 

nutriment  is  forced  into  its  construction,  and  bathed  by 
a  solution  containing  the  distinctively  differentiated  and 
essential  molecules  of  polarization,  the  physiologic  unit, 
under  proper  surroundings,  with  the  proper  initiatory  stimu- 
lus, is  ready  to  perform  all  functions. 

Waste  of  Unit- Action. — The  physiologic  unit  is  probably 
represented  by  the  following  formula:  —  o  N  p  c  H  — ,  the 
atoms,  being  placed  in  the  order  of  their  electro-negative 
and  electro-positive  character.  When  polarized,  the  most 
electro-negative  atoms  will  constitute  the  negative  pole,  and 
the  most  electro-positive  will  constitute  the  positive  of  the 
unit.  During  polarization  these  elements  are  held  fast  at 
their  respective  poles.  Now,  the  hydrogen  atom  at  the 
positive  pole  is  attracted  towards  the  equator  of  its  own 
molecule  and  towards  the  negative  pole  of  the  adjoining 
molecule,  according  to  the  great  law  that  forces  react  in 
inverse  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  distance  asunder. 
(Fig.  1,  I.)  Clearly,  the  hydrogen  atom  will  tend  to  leave 
its  molecular  situation  and  dissociate  at  the  moment  of 
depolarization.  The  same  may  be  said  of  its  fellow,  the 
carbon  atom,  although  its  attractions  are  less  positive. 
The  oxygen  atom  at  the  opposing  pole  will  also  dissociate 
for  the  same  reasons.  Hence,  there  are  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  oxygen  in  the  nascent  state  as  a  result  of  each  vibration 
or  polarization  of  the  physiologic  unit,  and  hence  these 
constitute  the  waste  element's;  and  it  follows  that  the  in- 
creased potential  of  the  nascent  elements  represents  the 
amount  of  work  done  by  the  polarizing  act.  Their  poten- 
tials also  represent  the  amount  of  energy  spent  when  a 
molecule  of  nutrition  of  negative  quality  is  impressed  into 
the  physiologic  unit  also  of  negative  quality,  by  extrinsic 
pressure. 

The  transformation  of  energy  may  be -stated  thus:  Work 
done  by  extrinsic  pressure  increases  the  potential  of  the 
unit  by  adding  a  molecule  to  the  unit,  the  potential  of  the 
physiologic  unit  and  the  nutritive  molecule  being  of  nega- 
tive quality.  The  increased  potential  of  the  unit  may  be 
termed  a  potential  of  concentrativeness.  It  is  similar  to  the 
potential  of  a  gas  gained  by  compression.  The  potential 
of  pressure  is  converted  into  a  potential  of  concentrative- 
ness, and  takes  place  during  the  rest  of  the  cell  or  unit. 
When  the  unit  polarizes,  the  potential  of  concentrativeness 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  11 

is  transformed  into  a  potential  of  diffusibility ,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  ions  separated  from  their  respective  poles. 
The  three  potentials,  extrinsic  pressure,  concentrativeness, 
and  diffusibility,  must  be^quantitatively  equal.  Thus  with- 
in the  body  energy  merely  has  been  transformed;  outside 
the  body  if  work  has  been  done  such  as  lifting  a  weight  to 
a  higher  level  by  means  of  muscular  contraction,  the  weight 
gains  a  potential  by  being  placed  further  from  the  center  of 
gravity,  but  a  column  of  air  has  approached  that  center 
and  accordingly  loses  potential.  The  balances  are  com- 
plete, within  and  without.  The  transformation  of  energy 
traced  further  shows  differentiation.  In  muscle  and  nerve 
the  ions  combine  and  form  simple  compounds,  the  energy 
diffusing  as  heat.  In  the  glands  the  ions  perform  .an  im- 
portant anabolic  function.  These  have  been  considered  in 
a  separate  article.  The  transformation  taking  place  in  the 
nutritive  process  in  the  neurone  will  be  considered  here. 
The  definition  of  ions  may  be  stated  thus:  Ions  are  disso- 
ciated constituents  (chemic  atoms)  of  a  molecule,  which  have 
assumed  the  molecular  condition  with  subnormal  dimen- 
sions and  supernormal  potentials  according  to  the  standard 
of  environment. 

The  Neurone. — The  neurone  is  a  distinct  morphologic 
body  and  consists  of  its  cell,  protoplasmic  and  axis  cylin- 
der processes,  end  arborizations  and  collaterals.  It  is  anal- 
agous  to  an  electric  body,  made  up  of  a  number  of  parts, 
all  of  them  conductors,  surrounded  by  an  insulatory  me- 
dium. On  looking  for  an  electric  body  with  which  to  com- 
pare the  neurone,  the  author  selected  the  conductor — comb, 
fork,  conducting  wire  and  electrode — of  a  static  machine. 
(Fig.  2  )  This  body  is  excited  at  the  comb,  manifestations 
appear  at  the  electrodes,  and  it  is  insulated  by  non-con- 
ducting material,  and  so  far  resembles  the  neurone.  There 
is  no  doubt  the  neurone  is  physiologically  insulated,  but 
owing  to  its  special  form  of  conduction  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  insulation  be  electric  in  character.  The  myelin 
sheath  may  be  an  insulator  of  nerve  force,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  an  electric  conductor.  It  is  the  insulation  of  a 
magnet  rather  than  that  of  an  electric  conductor. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  nerve  and  elec- 
tric force  when  brought  to  an  ultimate  analysis.  But  a 
neurone  performs  functions  which  an  electric  conductor 


12 


The  Physiologic  Unit. 


does  not;  and  it  manifests  phenomena  which  metallic  con- 
ductors, as  the  best  conductors,  are  incapable  of  manifest- 
ing. It  is  obvious  that  in  order  to  produce  electric  phe- 
nomena in  the  metallic  conductor  an  external  force  is  re- 
quired proportioned  exactly  to  the  work  to  be  done  through 
the  conductor,  and  to  the  electric  potential  located  in  it. 


FIG.  2. — Electric  conductor,  the  analogue  of  the  neurone. 

With  the  neurone  it  is  different,  a  slight  touch  on  a  nerve 
terminal,  an  indistinct  sound,  or  a  faint  ray  of  light  is  suf- 
ficient to  excite  a  nerve  terminal;  and  these  forms  of  excita- 
tion in  dynamic  force  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  re- 
sulting energy  liberated  or  work  done.  Hence  we  infer 
that  a  nerve  conductor  has  a  supply  of  energy  or  potential 
not  possessed  by  a  simple  conductor;  and  hence  we  arrive 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  fundamental  difference  between 
a  nerve  and  an  electric  conductor  lies  in  the  potential  of 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  13 

molecules;  and  that  the  difference  in  the  potential  of  mole- 
cules (organic  and  inorganic),  is  one  of  degree  and  not  of 
kind.  Obviously  the  potential  of  a  nerve  conducting  mole- 
cule is  immensely  greater  than  any  ordinary  electric  con- 
ducting molecule,  possessing,  as  the  former  does,  the  two 
factors:  (1)  great  number  of  atoms,  and  (2)  these  prepon- 
derately  inclined  in  one  direction,  the  negative. 

For  the  accomplishment  of  nerve  action  a  high  potential 
molecule  is  the  first  essential.  Molecular  polarization  is 
the  first  step  in  electrical  conduction,  and  this  is  equally 
true  in  nerve  conduction.  The  molecules  of  the  neurone 
must  be  set  therefore  in  symmetric  order,  and  capable  of 
moving  freely  within  their  free  paths  or  vibratory  spaces. 
The  conducting  structure  must  be  homogenous,  or  at  least 
the  physiologic  molecules  must  be  capable  of  being  timed 
as  to  vibratory  pace,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  rhythm  of  the 
specific  physiologic  excitant.  There  is  then  in  the  neural 
ultimate  conducting  fibril  a  line  of  physiologic  molecular 
units  of  uniform  character  and  having  uniform  interspaces 
(Fig.  1,  H,  i),.  the'  latter  constitute  the  induced  fields  and 
are  entirely  dimensionally  regulated  by  the  negative  poten- 
tial of  the  units'. 

Nutrition  of  the  Neurone. — When  certain  complex  mole- 
cules of  living  matter  polarize,  as  daring  nerve  conduction, 
some  of  the  atoms  separate  from  the  main  bodies  of  the 
molecules  or  units.  We  have  shown,  and  physiologic  facts 
support  us,  that  the  dissociated  atoms  are  oxygen,  carbon 
and  hydrogen.  If  these  are  the  elements  of  waste,  they  in 
some  form  must  be  the  elements  of  nutrition. 

When  an  insulated  electric  conductor  is  electrified  its 
surface  is  equipotential:  That  is  all  parts  of  the  conductor 
shows  electrification  in  an  equal  degree.  When  a  liquid  is 
poured  into  a  vessel  the  surface  of  the  liquid  becomes  a 
plane.  If  more  liquid  be  added  its  surface  will  still  be 
level.  Here  we  have  a  physically  equipotential  surface.  A 
line  of  molecules  of  high  potential,  finely  adjusted  and  in- 
sulated will  tend  to  be  chemically  equipotential. 

In  the  Daniell  cell  a  displacement-movement  takes  place 
in  order  to  establish  a  chemically  equipotential  surface  as 
shown  in  the  following  formula : 


Zn 


Zn  Zn  Zn  Zn 


SO4SO4SO4SO4    SO4SO4bO4SO 


Cu  Cu  Cu  Cu 


Cu 


14  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

Zn  represents  the  zinc  plate;  ZnSO4  represents  a  solu- 
tion of  zinc  sulphate;  Cu  SO  represents  a  solution  of 
copper  sulphate,  These  solutions  are  divided  by  a  porous 
partition.  Cu  represents  the  copper  plate.  The  explana- 
tion of  the  formula  is  as  follows :  The  zinc  atom  is  more 
positive  than  the  copper  atom,  consequently  the  negative 
radical  SO4  has  a  tendency  to  leave  the  copper  atom  and 
unite  with  the  zinc  thus  setting  free  energy.  The  difference 
of  potential  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  chemic  reaction  unless 
a  way  is  provided  for  the  energy  to  escape  with  slight  re- 
sistance". The  conducting  circuit  provides  the  necessary 
path.  Under  these  conditions  there  is  a  general  movement 
of  the  radicals  SO4,  by  displacement,  toward,  and  to  unite 
with  the  zinc,  whilst  copper  is  deposited  on  the  copper 
plate. 

The  axon  of  the  neurone  body  in  some  instances  termi- 
nates in  a  hillock  within  the  cell,  and  in  other  instances  is 
continued  through  the  cell.  Within  the  cell  is  a  mass  of 
protoplasm  and  hydrocarbons.  This  mass  is  composed  of 
molecules  of  high  potential,  and  therefore  will  readily  dis- 
sociate when  the  means  of  escape  is  provided  for  the  energy. 
There  is,  however,  in  this  protoplasmic  mass  a  certain 
amount  of  pressure  exerted  constantly,  just  as  there  is  in 
the  Daniell  cell.  This  pressure  has  two  factors :  (1)  The 
chemically  high  potential  of  the  molecules  of  the  material, 
and  (2)  the  osmotic  pressure  of  the  blood  supply. 

After  a  period  of  rest  there  is  established  between  the 
molecules  of  the  conducting  fibrils  and  the  protoplasmic 
material  a  chemic  equilibrium.  Daring  nerve  action  the 
conducting  molecules  lose  part  of  their  oxygen,  carbon,  and 
hydrogen,  which  lowers  the  molecular  potential  of  the 
fibrils  and  disturbs  the  equilibrium.  This  lessens  the  re- 
sistance to  the  pressure  within  the  cell,  and  provides  a  way 
for  the  escape  of  energy.  There  immediately  ensues  a 
breaking  up  of  the  molecules  of  high  potential  of  the  proto- 
plasm and  hydrocarbons  within  the  cell,  and  the  simpler 
compounds  escape  by  different  routes.  The  re-establish- 
ment of  the  equilibrium  between  the  nerve  fibril  and  the 
cell  is  accomplished  by  a  displacement-movement  of  hydro- 
gen carbonate  along  the  fibril.  By  an  anabolic  process  the 
potential  of  the  physiologic  units,  or  molecules,  of  the 
fibrils  is  regained  at  the  expense  of  contemporary  kata- 


The  Physiologic  Unit, 


15 


bolisin  in  the  cells.  (Fig.  3.)  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  there  can  be  no  attraction  between  the  physiologic 
unit  and  the  molecules  of  nutrition — H2CO3 — as  both  are 
negative  in  potential,  therefore  the  potential  gained  by  the 
units  of  the  conducting  fibre  is  equal  to  the  extrinsic  pres- 
sure derived  from  the  katabolism  of  the  cell.  Hence,  the 
steps  in  the  transformation  of  energy,  accomplished  by  the 
functionating  act  of  a  physiologic  unit,  may  be  formulated 
thus:]  The  unit  takes  on  molecules  of  nutrition,  H2CO3,  and 
splits  them  into  ions — hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen.  It 


Fiu.  8.— Two  motor  cells  from  lumbar  region  of  spinal  cord  of  dog  fixed  in 
sublimate  and  stained  in  toluidin  blue,  or,  from  the  fresh  dog:  1,  pale  nu- 
cleus; 2,  dark  Nissl  spindles;  3,  bundles  of  nerve  fibrils.  6,  from  the  fatigued 
dog:  4,  dajrk  shriveled  nucleus;  5,  pale  spindles.  (After Mann  )  (From Barker.) 

will  be  seen  that  the  cell  is  a  store-house  of  energy,  and 
£hat  it  is  capable  of  supplying  nutrition  for  some  distance 
from  its  site;  but  only  to  maintain  the  potential  of  a  unit 
whose  base'or  foundation  has  already  been  laid.  When  new 
cells  are  needed,  as  when  the  structural  continuity  of  the 
neurone  is  broken,  a  more  direct  blood  connection  is  de- 
manded. Thus,  the  neurone  is  repaired  from  the  pheri- 
phery.  It  is  obvious  that]a  collection  of  units  not  strictly 
belonging  to  the  nerve  structure,  but  connected  anatomi- 
cally with  nerve  filaments,  may  receive  nutritipn  through 
these  filaments.  ~»From?a  study  of  the  Graafian  vesicle,  the 


16  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

author  believes  that  this  anomaly  exists  in  the  membrana 
granulosa. 

Reflex  Action. — In  an  article  already  published,  the  ini- 
tiatory stimulation  of  the  neurone  and  the  propagation  of 
the  neural  wave  have  been  considered.  Here,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  leading-off  point  is  always  negative,  and  that 
the  induced  polar  field  of  one  molecule  is  a  stimulus  to  the 
adjoining,  just  as  the  polarization  in  an  induced  field  of  a 
magnet  causes  polarization  of  a  conductor  within  its  area. 
It  is  clear  that  each  physiologic  unit  within  the  neurone  is 
stimulated  by  a  positive  excitant — the  positive  polar  poten- 
tial of  the  preceding  unit: — and  it  is  obvious  that  the  natural 
external  stimulus  to  the  initiatory  molecule  is  also  positive 
in  character. 

How  does  the  distal  terminal  of  one  neurone  stimulate 
the  proximate  terminal  of  another?  To  understand  the 
principle  on  which  this  phenomenon  is  based,  and  the 
variations  in  intensity  which  it  undergoes,  a  study  of  die- 
lectric constants,  or  specific  inductive  capacity,  of  dielectric 
media  is  necessary.  By  specific  inductive  capacity  is  meant 
that  quality  possessed  by  media  of  modifying  the  potential 
between  two  charged  bodies,  the  charges  on  the  bodies 
remaining  the  same.  Thus,  with  air  as  unity,  the  following 
table  gives  the  inductive  capacity  or  dielectric  constants 
of  the  substances  named : 

Substance.  Dielectric  Constant. 

Sulphur.  2.58 

Carbon  disulphide.  1.81 

Hydrogen.  0.999 

Carbon  dioxide.  1.0008 

If  there  is  a  given  charge  on  two  bodies  at  a  given  dis- 
tance apart,  and  sulphur  is  the  dielectric  medium,  there 
will  be  a  certain  difference  of  potential  between  the  charge!), 
bodies.  This  difference  of  potential  will  be  increased  im- 
mensely by  substituting  carbon  dioxide  or  hydrogen  for 
the  sulphur.  The  substitution  is  equal  to  multiplying  the 
charge  by  about  two  and  one  half . 

The  organic  substance  neuro-keratin  is  found  in  the 
brain  and  in  the  medullary  sheaths  of  nerve  fibers.  It  con- 
tains a  large  proportion  of  sulphur  and  is  probably  pos- 
sessed of  insulatory  properties.  Sulphur,  then,  has  very 
large  specific  inductive  capacity,  and  is  one  of  the  constitu- 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  17 

ents  of  nemo-keratin,  a  substance  found  in  the  medullary 
sheaths,  a  structure  placed  in  a  relative  position  to  the  axis 
cylinder  to  enable  it  to  insulate  the  latter. 

The  last  physiologic  unit  at  the  distal  terminal  of  a  nerve 
fiber,  when  polarized,  has  a  free  magnetic  end  insulated 
by  neuro-keratin,  from  the  initiatory  unit  of  proximate 
dendrones  of  adjoining  fibers,  a  condition  analogous  to  that 
of  a  Leyden  jar.  The  neuro-keratin  is  a  shield;  such  as 
the  copper  cylinder  introduced  between  the  core  and  the 
primary  circuit  of  some  faradic  batteries.  Reflex  action 
taking  place  between  neurones  is  similar  to  electric  induc- 
tion and  it  demands  similar  conditions.  The  conception 
that  nerve  action  taking  place  between  two  neurones  is 
similar  to  induction,  and  that  sulphur  is  the  dielectric 
medium,  is  supported  by  the  following  facts  : 

1.  In  dyspnoa,  where  there  is  an  accumulation  of  carbon 
dioxide,  there  is  an  increased  elimination  of  sulphur  in  the 
urine. 

2.  Asphyxia  of  animals  produced  by  placing  them  in  a 
closed  chamber  and  depriving  them  of  air  is  accompanied 
by  convulsions. 

3.  Exhaustion  of   nerve    centers   by  continued    action 
favors  hysteria  and  allied  affections. 

4.  The  part  of  the  nerve  structure  that  is  first  influenced 
by  encroaching  disease   is  the  myelin  sheath,  and  this  is 
the  first  part  to  degenerate  when  the  nerve  trunk  is  sev- 
ered. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  myelin  is  a  very  sensitive  sub- 
stance, and  is  the  first  to  suffer  when  any  departure  from 
physiologic  conditions  takes  place;  we  also  find  that  carbon 
dioxide,  when  accumulated  beyond  the  physiologic  amount 
displaces  sulphur,  spasms  ensuing;  and  that  spasmodic 
action  is  favored  by  nerve  exhaustion.  The  explanation  of 
these  facts  seems  c*lear:  The  sulphur  is  held  loosely  in  the 
neuro-keratin  and  is  displaced  by  an  excess  of  carbon 
dioxide,  whether  taking  place  from  excessive  nerve  action 
or  accumulating  otherwise;  the  sulphur  being  displaced, 
the  inductive  capacity  of  the  insulating  substance  is  im- 
mensely lessened,  the  difference  of  potential  between  the 
adjoining  terminals  of  neurones  is  greatly  raised,  reflex 
action  is  increased  and  spasmodic  action  of  various  forms 
result.  This  conception  of  the  insulation  of  neurones  fur- 


18  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

Irishes  a  bases  whereby  the  -pathologic  conditions  underlying 
hysteria,  epilepsy,  and  other  spasmodic  diseases  are  ren- 
dered clear. 

Molecular  Segmentation. — According  to  the  law  of  Avo- 
gadro,  equal  volumes  of  all  substances  in  the  gaseous  state 
under  like  conditions  of  pressure  and  temperature,  contain 
the  same  number  of  molecules.  This  means  that  the  tri- 
dimensional  space,  occupied  by  any  ponderable  molecule 
and  its  induced  field  (Fig.  1,  E),  is  equal  in  area  to  those 
spaces,,  of  other  molecules  of  gaseous  substances  un- 
der like  conditions.  It  follows  that  as  ponderable  mole- 
cules of  gases  are  of  different  sizes,  and  as  their  induced 
fields  vary  directly  with  their  potentials,  that  the  potentials 
and  induced  fields  vary  inversely  as  the  dimensions  of  the 
ponderable  molecule.  It  is  by  this  law  that  the  molecular 
equilibrium,  as  shown  by  Avogadro's  law,  is  maintained. 
The  molecules  of  the  residual  gas  in  a  vacuum  tube  divide 
and  subdivide  in  order  to  maintain  this  equilibrium.  The 
molecules  of  a  gas  may  be  compressed  until  the  solid 
state  is  reached — the  induced  fields  are  encroached  upon  by 
means  of  pressure  until  the  ponderable  bodies  are  in  con- 
tact. It  is  obvious  that  potential  and  pressure  are  impor- 
tant factors  in  determining  molecular  conditions;  and  it  is 
obvious  that  a  ponderable  molecule  may  be  built  up  or  torn 
down  by  the  addition  or  subtraction  of  constituent  ele- 
ments. 

If  a  physiologic  unit  or  molecule  be  placed  under  certain 
degrees  of  pressure  and  temperature,  and  amidst  ions,  such 
as  hydrogen,  carbon  and  oxygen,  set  free  by  nerve  action, 
it  is  evident  that  these  will  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the 
unit,  and  the  latter  will  accordingly  increase  in  ponderable 
dimensions.  Here,  we  will  formulate  the  following  law: 
A  physiologic  unit  is  built  up  by  ions  furnished  by  other 
cells,  but  for  the  accomplishment  of  segmentation  it  is  essen- 
tial that  lymph  or  blood-elements  be  present  also.  A  study 
of  the  differ  e  11  tional  structure  of  the  ovaries  and  testicles 
will  show  that  this  is  the  reason  why  there  is  only  one 
ovum  in  the  Graafian  vesicle,  and  numerous  spermatozoa  in 
the  testicular  tubule. 

All  glandular  structures  must  have  poles  just  as  the  ends 
of  a  muscle  have  differential  polarity.  The  glandular  polar 
arrangement  will  determine  the  character  of  osmotic  action 


The  Physiologic  Unit.  19 

— of  the  alkalinity  or  acidity  of  the  secretion.  A  physio- 
logic unit,  placed  at  the  positive  pole  of  an  epithelial  cell, 
in  the  midst  of  ions  produced  by  nerve  or  gland-cell  action, 
and  bathed  with  lymph-salts,  will  be  surrounded  by  all  the 
elements  which  its  constituency  demands  for  segmentation. 
The  reaction  taking  place  between  the  carbon  and  oxygen 
ions  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  bases  of  the  salts  of  the 
lymph  on  the  other,  will  set  free  compounds  of  phosphorus 
and  nitrogen,  which,  with  ions  not  reacted  on  by  the  bases, 
will  form  the  essential  nutritive  elements  for  cell  reproduc- 
tion. The  physiologic  molecule  may  be  built  up  until  its 
centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces  are  equal,  and  this  equi- 
librium will  depend  on  the  degree  of  extrinsic  pressure. 
When  local  attraction  at  the  circumference  is  greater  than 
the  sum  of  opposing  forces — attraction  towards  the  center, 
and  the  extrinsic  pressure — it  is  evident  that  a  new  center 
will  be  formed  which  will  dispute  possession  of  the  in- 
trinsic forces  of  the  molecule. 

Now,  in  such  a  condition,  when  the  molecule  polarizes 
with  equipotential  hemispheres,  it  is  evident  that  there  will 
be  shut  off  a  certain  portion,  i.  e.,  instead  of  associating 
molecules  of  polarization,  the  polarizing  unit  will  dissoci- 
ate molecules  of  polarization — certain  molecules  will  be 
extruded  from  the  spherical  area  in  order  that  the  hemi- 
spheres be  equipotential.  When  the  building  up  process 
has  reached  an  extent,  so  that  the  repulsion  between  the 
extruded  portion  and  the  body  of  the  unit  (both  being  of 
negative  potential)  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  resistance 
of  external  pressure,  complete  segmentation  will  take  place. 
Segmentation  of  the  primary  potential  of  the  physiologic 
unit  or  nucleolus  will  be  accompanied  by  division  of  the 
induced  magnetic  field  or  nucleus.  The  collective  phe- 
nomena, termed  karyokinesis,  may  be  illustrated  by  the  di- 
vision of  a  negatively  electrified  body.  (Fig.  1,  D,  E.) 

Classification  of  Cells  According  to  Nutrition. — Nutrition 
is  essential  to  the  functional  activity  of  all  cells.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  in  order  that  a  cell-molecule  shall  gain  in  poten- 
tial-energy the  nutritional  elements  mast  be  qualitatively 
the  same  in  potential  as  the  cell.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  activity  of  most  cells  is  accompanied  by  conversion  of 
molecules  into  ions.  This  rule  does  not  apply  to  all  cells. 
It  is  evident  that  a  cell  which  reproduces  itself  requires 


20  '  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

different  nutrition  from  a  cell  which  functionates  and  gives 
off  a  limited  number  of  its  constituent  elements  as  waste. 
This  leads  to  a  conception  of  a  classification  of  cells  on 
the  basis  of  the  character  of  their  nutrition.  The  classifi- 
cation is  formulated  as  follows : 

1.  Cells  that  are  surrounded  by  elements  such  as  pro- 
teids,   hydrocarbons,  etc.,  which,   by   katabolism,   furnish 
molecules  of  nutrition,  which,  are  converted  by  the  func- 
tionating  cell   into    ions.     Specifically,    the   molecules   of 
nutrition  are  hydrogen  carbonate,  and  the  ions  hydrogen, 
carbon  and  oxygen.     Such  cells  do  not  multiply  but  retain 
a   stable   base.     They   are   the   cell-molecules  of  muscles, 
nerves,  glands,  electric  organs  and  most  nucleoli. 

2.  Cells   that  are  placed  in  the  midst  of  ions  produced 
by  other  cells;   are  built  up  to  a  high  negative  potential, 
are  shut  off  from  blood  or  lymph-elements,  and  are  incapa- 
ble of  segmentation,  and  perform  no  function  under  their 
primary  environment.     The  ova  are  such  cells. 

3.  Cells  that  are  acted  upon  by  ions,  and  by  secondary 
ions  produced  by  reactions  between  the  primary  ions  and 
the  lymph  elements  and  which  have  the  property  of  repro- 
duction.     To  this  class  belong  the   spermatogenetic  cells, 
and  probably  embryonic  cells,  and  cells  of  tumors. 

4.  Blood-cells  which  pass  under  the  influence  of,  and  are 
built  up  by  ions  furnished  by  other  cells,  and  pass  again 
into  the  circulation,  into  a  secretion,  or  into  cytoplasm. 
These  are  potential-carriers,  enzymes,  etc.,   of  the  secre- 
tions, and  nuclear  elements. 

The  classification  might  be  extended,  but  the  above 
is  sufficient  to  show  that  cells,  being  histogentically 
related,  may  be  transformed  from  one  class  to  another 
by  means  of  a  change  in  the  nutrition;  and  that  the  trans- 
formation may  be  physiologic  or  pathologic/in  character. 
Thus  ova  by  differentiation  of  environment,  and  on  being 
supplied  by  the  essential  associating  molecules  of  polariza- 
tion and  nutritive  elements  acquire  reproductive  properties; 
-and  from  the  resulting  segmenting  cells  permanent  cells  of 
the  tissues  are  planted.  Again  a  simple  permanent  cell  of 
the  serous  covering  of  the  ovary  is  converted  into  an  ovum. 
The  physiologic  processes  by  which  these  transformations 
are  accomplished  are  not  by  changing  the  fundamental 
character  of  the  cell  but  by  a  change  or  changes  in  its  envi- 


The  Physiologic  Unit  21 

ronment  and  nutritional  elements.  Furthermore,  this  rule 
holds  good  when  the  transformation  is  from  a  state  which 
is  physiologic  to  one  which  is  pathologic. 

The  anatomical  diflerentation  as  seen  in  the  testicle  is  a 
type  of  essential  conditions  of  cells  that  have  the  property 
of  reproduction ;  and  the  osmosis  in  this  structure  is  such 
that  the  lymph  salts  are  acted  upon  by  ions,  and  the  pro- 
duct bathes  the  segmenting  cells.  The  anatomical  arrange- 
ment shows  that  osmosis  takes  place  from  the  lymph  spaces 
to  the  tubuli  seminiferi.  Spermatozoa  taken  directly  from 
the  testis  are  quiescent.  This  is  evidently  owing  to  the 
electro-negative  character  of  the  secretion.  It  is  obvious 
that  circulatory  pressure  must  direct  osmosis  from  the 
lymph  spaces  toward  the  tubuli,  but  the  polar  differentation 
of  the  endothelial  cells  bounding  the  lymph  spaces  deter- 
mines the  quality  of  the  osmotic  flow. 

The  following  changes  are  submitted  as  factors  in  the 
causality  of  the -growth  of  tumors:  (1)  Continued  circu- 
latory modifications,  which  weaken  sensitive  anatomical 
elements,  such  as  myelin  sheaths,  elastic  fibres,  etc. 
(2)  Retardation  or  blocking  of  lymphatic  streams.  (3) 
Change  in  the  osmotic  flow,  so  that  the  conditions  approach 
those  of  the  testicular  glands,  a  change  qualitatively  deter- 
mined by  the  polarity  of  tissues. 

Granting  that  the  general  formula  of  the  cell-molecule  or 
nucleolus  is:  -  o  N  p  c  H  -f ,  it  is  evident  that  if  it  is 
fed  with  oxygen,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  it  may  be  built  up 
to  a  high  negative  potential,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ovum,  or 
it  may  functionate,  as  in  the  case  of  a  nerve  or  muscle  cell, 
but  it  is  equally  evident  that  it  cannot  reproduce  from  such 
nutritional  elements,  except  at  the  expense  of  its  stability 
as  a  cell.  If  it  is  fed  with  compounds  of  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
phosphorous,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  under  the  essential 
conditions  it  may  reproduce  a  cell  similar  to  itself.  Further- 
more, if  to  these  elements  are  added  a  positive  element, 
such  as  calcium  or  sodium,  it  is  obvious  that  reproduction 
may  take  place  with  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  cell. 
It  is  also  obvious  that  if  division  take  place  a  number  of 
times  and  the  cell  fed  with  the  positive  element,  that  its 
quality  may  be  entirely  changed  from  a  negative  cell  to  a 
positive  one.  This  is  exactly  what  must  take  place  in  the 
metabolic  changes  that  convert  the  spermatogonia,  evi- 


22  The  Physiologic  Unit. 

dently  negative,  into  cells  with  electro-positive  nucleoli  and 
having  fecundating  properties.  Beginning  with  two  cell- 
molecules,  qualitatively  identical,  nature  feeds  one  with  a 
few  elements,  in  the  main  negative,  and  constructs  an 
ovum,  and  feeds  the  other  with  elements,  in  the  main,  of  a 
positive  quality,  and  converts  it  into  a  sperm  nucleolus; 
and  the  relationship  of  the  two  is  as  that  of  water  of  crys- 
tallization and  crystallizing  salt.  The  one  is  co-efficient  to 
the  other. 


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